Exome sequencing, also known as whole exome sequencing (WES or WXS), is a technique for sequencing all the expressed genes in a genome(known as the exome). It consists of first selecting only the subset of DNA that encodes proteins (known as exons) and then sequencing that DNA using any high-throughput DNA sequencing technology. Humans have about 180,000 exons, constituting about 1% of the human genome, or approximately 30 million base pairs.[1] The goal of this approach is to identify genetic variation that is responsible for both Mendelian and common polygenic diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease without the high costs associated with whole-genome sequencing.
Exome sequencing is especially effective in the study of rare Mendelian diseases, because it is the most efficient way to identify the genetic variants in all of an individual’s genes. These diseases are most often caused by very rare genetic variants that are only present in a tiny number of individuals;[2] by contrast, techniques such as SNP arrays can only detect shared genetic variants that are common to many individuals in the wider population. Furthermore, because severe disease causing variants are much more likely (but by no means exclusively) to be in the protein coding sequence, focusing on this 1% costs far less than whole genome sequencing but still produces a high yield of relevant variants.
In the past, clinical genetic tests were chosen based on the clinical presentation of the patient (i.e. focused on one gene or a small number known to be associated with a particular syndrome), or surveyed only certain types of variation (e.g. comparative genomic hybridization) but provided definitive genetic diagnoses in fewer than half of all patients.[3] Exome sequencing is now increasingly used to complement these other tests: both to find mutations in genes already known to cause disease as well as to identify novel genes by comparing exomes from patients with similar features.
A study published in September 2009 discussed a proof of concept experiment to determine if it was possible to identify causal genetic variants using exome sequencing. They sequenced four individuals with Freeman-Sheldon syndrome (FSS) (OMIM 193700), a rare autosomal dominant disorder known to be caused by a mutation in the gene MYH3.[1] Eight HapMapindividuals were also sequenced to remove common variants in order to identify the causal gene for FSS. After exclusion of common variants, the authors were able to identify MYH3, which confirms that exome sequencing can be used to identify causal variants of rare disorders.[1] This was the first reported study that used exome sequencing as an approach to identify an unknown causal gene for a rare mendelian disorder.
Subsequently, another group reported successful clinical diagnosis of a suspected Bartter syndrome patient of Turkish origin.[8] Bartter syndrome is a renal salt-wasting disease. Exome sequencing revealed an unexpected well-conserved recessive mutation in a gene called SLC26A3 which is associated with congenital chloride diarrhea (CLD). This molecular diagnosis of CLD was confirmed by the referring clinician. This example provided proof of concept of the use of whole-exome sequencing as a clinical tool in evaluation of patients with undiagnosed genetic illnesses. This report is regarded as the first application of next generation sequencing technology for molecular diagnosis of a patient.
A second report was conducted on exome sequencing of individuals with a mendelian disorder known as Miller syndrome (MIM#263750), a rare disorder of autosomal recessive inheritance. Two siblings and two unrelated individuals with Miller syndrome were studied. They looked at variants that have the potential to be pathogenic such as non-synonymous mutations, splice acceptor and donor sites and short coding insertions or deletions.[2] Since Miller syndrome is a rare disorder, it is expected that the causal variant has not been previously identified. Previous exome sequencing studies of common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in public SNP databases were used to further exclude candidate genes. After exclusion of these genes, the authors found mutations in DHODH that were shared among individuals with Miller syndrome. Each individual with Miller syndrome was a compound heterozygote for the DHODH mutations which were inherited as each parent of an affected individual was found to be a carrier.[2]
This was the first time exome sequencing was shown to identify a novel gene responsible for a rare mendelian disease. This exciting finding demonstrates that exome sequencing has the potential to locate causative genes in complex diseases, which previously has not been possible due to limitations in traditional methods. Targeted capture and massively parallel sequencing represents a cost-effective, reproducible and robust strategy with high sensitivity and specificity to detect variants causing protein-coding changes in individual human genomes.